Issue: Exclusive Issue/October 2009
We live in a highly mobile world, where migration is not only inevitable but also an important dimension of human development. Nearly one billion—or one out of seven—people are migrants. The Report, Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development, demonstrates that migration can enhance human development for the people who move, for destination communities and for those who remain at home.
“Migration can be a force for good, contributing significantly to human development,” says United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Administrator Helen Clark. “But to realize its benefits, there needs to be a supportive policy environment as this Report suggests.”
Indeed, migration can raise a person’s income, health and education prospects. Most importantly, being able to decide where to live is a key element of human freedom, according to the Report, which also argues that large gains in human development can be achieved by lowering barriers and other constraints to movement and by improving policies towards those who move.
However, migration does not always bring benefits. The extent to which people are able to gain from moving depends greatly on the conditions under which they move. Financial outlays can be relatively high, and movement inevitably involves uncertainty and separation from families. The poor are often constrained by a lack of resources, information and barriers in their new host communities and countries. For too many people movement reflects the repercussions of conflict, natural disaster or severe economic hardship. Some women end up in trafficking networks, lose significant freedoms and suffer physical danger.
Challenging common misconceptions
The findings in this Report cast new light on some common misconceptions. Most migrants do not cross national borders, but instead move within their own country: 740 million people are internal migrants, almost four times the number of international migrants. Among international migrants, less than 30 percent move from developing to developed countries. For example, only three percent of Africans live outside their country of birth.
Contrary to commonly held beliefs, migrants typically boost economic output and give more than they take. Detailed investigations show that immigration generally increases employment in host communities, does not crowd out locals from the job market and improves rates of investment in new businesses and initiatives. Overall, the impact of migrants on public finances—both national and local—is relatively small, while there is ample evidence of gains in other areas such as social diversity and the capacity for innovation.
Links to development
The Report, Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development, stresses that internal and international migration can significantly enhance human development among all concerned, including migrants, their families and home and destination communities. This is particularly important as countries around the world grapple with the consequences of the global economic downturn.
“Following recovery from the global recession, demand for migrant workers will return, therefore it is short-sighted to negate the benefits which migrants bring,” says the Report’s lead author Jeni Klugman. “Especially during the recession, debates and reforms on migration policies need to move ahead.”
For the countries where migrants are coming from, the Report warns that migration is no substitute for development. However, mobility often brings new ideas, knowledge and resources—to migrants and to origin countries—that can complement and even enhance human and economic development. In many countries, the money sent back by migrants exceeds official aid.
Time for action
The world recession has quickly become a jobs crisis, and a jobs crisis is generally bad news for migrants. In a number of areas, the number of new migrants is down, while some destination countries are taking steps to encourage or compel migrants to leave. But now is the time for action, the Report argues.
“Many migrants find themselves doubly at risk,” says Klugman. “They are suffering unemployment, insecurity and social marginalization, but at the same time they are often portrayed as the problem. This is not the time for anti-immigrant protectionism, but for reforms which promote longer-term gains. Convincing the public of this will take courage.”
Among the short-term measures that are important, the Report recommends giving laid-off migrants time to search for another employer or to wrap up their affairs. The Report also recommends that public and private sectors, as well as civil society organizations, help publicize employment outlooks in source countries. The registration of departing migrants could avoid another round of recruitment costs and mitigate the recession’s costs to both current and prospective migrants.
“The recession should be seized as an opportunity to institute a new deal for migrants—one that that will benefit workers at home and abroad while guarding against a protectionist backlash,” says Klugman. “With recovery, many of the same underlying trends that have been driving movement during the past half-century will resurface, attracting more people to move.”
MIGRATION COMPLEMENTS DEVELOPMENT
Migration can make an important contribution to development at home, but is not an alternative to efforts by developing countries to achieve growth and improve human well-being.
The Report, Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development, finds that mobility generates access to ideas, knowledge and resources that complement and enhance progress. Most migrants, internal and international, reap gains in the form of higher incomes, better access to education and health and improved prospects for their children. These gains often directly benefit family members who stay behind as well as countries of origin indirectly. To ensure the best possible benefits from migration, the Report urges governments in origin countries to make mobility an integral part of national development programmes.
“Migration can benefit those who move and those who stay,” says the Report’s lead author Jeni Klugman. “However, migration cannot be the sole national strategy to accelerate human development. Countries must continue to address the constraints to human development at home, with migration viewed as a potential element in a broad-based approach.”
Migration policies and development
The Report shows that migration can also have a significant impact on reducing poverty in a country. This is especially true for internal migration, since it is much easier for people from poor families to move within borders than across them. Evidence from Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico and Tanzania shows that poverty rates fall for households with at least one member who has moved elsewhere within the country.
Countries of origin benefit from emigration in many ways, especially through money transfers, or remittances. In total, remittance flows to developing countries are around four times the size of total official development aid (ODA) that they receive.
Mobility also brings other benefits, such as new ideas, entrepreneurial skills and the transfer of technology to help with economic activities at home. These so-called ‘social remittances’ can have a more intangible but no less significant affect on services and practices, such as health, education and gender relations.
Reforming migration policies and opening legal channels will benefit Europe and address the problem of a shrinking and aging population.
Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development, reveals that the massive inflows associated with European Union accession in 2004 led neither to the displacement of local workers nor to increased unemployment. Research in Europe supports the idea that migrant labour does not have a large effect on the employment or wages of locals.
“Migration remains a contentious policy issue in need of reform and reconsideration across the European Union (EU),” says lead author Jeni Klugman. “We hope our Report will help influence the debate and show the overall positive benefits of migration, especially with migration being a major priority of the current Swedish EU presidency.”
Overcoming barriers calls on destination countries to take steps to end discrimination against migrants. At the same time, the Report stresses the importance of addressing the concerns of local residents and increasing awareness of migrants’ rights, in addition to working with employers, trade unions and community groups to combat xenophobia.
Perceptions of migration are often wildly different from the truth, according to Overcoming barriers. There is little evidence to suggest overall that migration negatively impacts destination countries, and popular concerns are exaggerated and often unfounded. Despite the high levels of attention given to emigration from Africa to Europe, only three percent of Africans live in a country different from where they were born and less than one percent of Africans live in Europe.
Trends
Trends on population and demographics underline the need for migrant rights and removal of restrictions on movement. The world’s population is expected to grow by a third over the next four decades. Virtually all of this population growth will be in developing countries, while Europe’s population will shrink and age. One option for the continued success of Europe is migration.
During the global economic downturn, there is concern that anti-immigrant backlashes may cause negative effects for migrants and adverse long-run effects for the world. Overcoming barriers believes reform is possible only if steps are taken to address the concerns of local residents, so that they no longer view immigration as a threat. Policy discussions must recognize that in many European countries attitudes among the resident population towards migration are at best mildly permissive and often quite negative.
Many people are willing to accept immigration if jobs are available. Overcoming barriers links loosening migrant restrictions to labour demands, such that inflows of migrants will respond to vacancy levels. This alleviates the concern that migrants will replace local workers.
CORE PACKAGE OF REFORMS
Governments should undertake a series of policy reforms to maximize the benefits of migration and to better ensure the rights of migrants, according to the Human Development Report.
“Migration, both within and across borders, brings significant gains across the board, which could be further enhanced by better policies at home and abroad,” says Klugman.
The Report proposes reforms to migration policies, directed towards both destination and source countries that would ensure increased access and better treatment for migrants.
Policy Proposals
Overcoming Barriers lays out a core package of reforms, six ‘pillars’ that call for:
Overcoming barriers focuses first on people in developing countries and how disparities in opportunities shape the choices that people make when seeking to improve their lives. The poor have the least opportunities and resources to move within and between countries; yet, they have the most to gain from migration. Granting greater access to opportunities and ensuring fair treatment for migrants are essential if migration is to live up to its full potential as an avenue for human development that can benefit all concerned—from the migrant families to source and destination communities, according to the Report.
Barriers to migration come in a variety of forms. Migration through regular or legal channels is presently very constrained. Overcoming barriers proposes that governments expand access to movement for all people, but especially for low-skilled workers, conditional on labour demand.
Many destination countries either do not recognize credentials, such as university degrees or professional qualifications, or require time-consuming and costly verification processes. As a result, many highly qualified migrants end up working in lower skilled occupations that lower the benefit of moving, both to them and to destination countries. The Report urges governments to take steps to facilitate the transfer of such qualifications.
Overcoming Barriers found that in many cases, financial costs pile up even before a migrant has left her or his country. Fees for low-skilled workers are often the highest relative to expected wages abroad. For example, few migrant nurses from countries in Asia pay recruitment fees, but most domestic helpers do. The Report urges origin and destination governments to simplify and streamline procedures and reduce costs.
he Report cites numerous cases where recommended policies have been successfully implemented. Regional arrangements—as in Europe and South America—have allowed significant liberalization of the movement of people. Sweden, for example, has implemented labour immigration refo
Listed among countries in the high human development category, Turkey ranks 79th out of 182 countries, according to the 2009 Human Development Index (HDI). 18 countries in the same category such as Bulgaria, Romania and Macedonia with lower income levels are listed above Turkey in the rankings. This draws attention to a need for increased efforts that will enable the country to convert its high income levels into enhanced human development.
The HDI is a summary measure for monitoring long-term progress in the average level of human development in three basic dimensions: a long and healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living. These basic dimensions are measured by life expectancy at birth; adult literacy and combined gross enrolment in education; and GDP per capita in purchasing power parity US dollars (PPP US$), respectively.
While Turkey’s combined gross enrollment and the adult literacy rates are 71.1% and 88.7%, respectively, life expectancy at birth is 71.7 years. GDP per capita is 12,955 US$ (PPP$) accumulating to an HDI value of 0.806. There are, however, countries with lower GDPs ranking above Turkey in the Index. For instance, although Bosnia and Herzegovina’s GDP per capita (7,764 US$) is much lower than that of Turkey, it is three places higher than Turkey in the Index. This is mainly due to a higher adult literacy rate (96.7 %) compared to that of Turkey. This points to the continued need for enhanced investments in human capital in Turkey.
Nevertheless, progress in basic human development indicators for Turkey has been consistent over the past 27 years. It registered progress in most of its underlying indicators between 1980 and 2007. During that period, life expectancy at birth rose by approximately 11 years, adult literacy rate increased by 23 percentage points and combined gross enrolment increased by 23 percentage points. GDP per capita (in constant 2007 PPP US$) also increased by 100 per cent. The cumulative effect of these changes is an improvement in the HDI value.
For the 2009 Human Development Index, please click here.
POVERTY INDICATORS FOR TURKEY
The HDI measures the average progress of a country in human development. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1), focuses on the proportion of people below certain threshold levels in each of the dimensions of the human development index - living a long and healthy life, having access to education, and a decent standard of living. By looking beyond income deprivation, the HPI-1 represents a multi-dimensional alternative to the $1.25 a day (PPP US$) poverty measure. The HPI-1 value of 8.3% for Turkey, ranks 40th among 135 countries for which the index has been calculated. The HPI-1 measures severe deprivation in health by the proportion of people who are not expected to survive to age 40. Education is measured by the adult illiteracy rate. And a decent standard of living is measured by the unweighted average of people not using an improved water source and the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight for their age. Table 2 shows the values for these variables for Turkey and compares them to other countries.
GENDER EQUALITY EFFORTS MUST CONTINUE
The HDI measures average achievements in a country, but it does not incorporate the degree of gender imbalance in these achievements. The gender-related development index (GDI), introduced in Human Development Report 1995, measures achievements in the same dimensions using the same indicators as the HDI but captures inequalities in achievement between women and men. It is simply the HDI adjusted downward for gender inequality. The greater the gender disparity in basic human development, the lower is a country's GDI relative to its HDI. Turkey's GDI value, 0.788 should be compared to its HDI value of 0.806. Its GDI value is 97.8% of its HDI value. Out of the 155 countries with both HDI and GDI values, 125 countries have a better ratio than Turkey's.
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), which is based on active participation of women in economic and political life, reveals a different story. According to the GEM, Turkey occupies the 8th lowest place in the rankings, making it 101st out of 109 countries and calling for further action to strengthen gender equality in Turkey. For the 2009 GEM, please clickhere.
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“Despite significant improvements over time, progress has been uneven,” says the Report’s lead author Jeni Klugman. “Many countries have experienced setbacks over recent decades, in the face of economic downturns, conflict-related crises and the HIV and AIDS epidemic. And this was even before the impact of the current global financial crisis was felt,” Klugman adds, since the most recent internationally comparable data is for 2007.
New rankings
The top three ranked countries in the HDI are, in order, Norway, Australia and Iceland. France rejoined the top 10 countries after dropping down for one year, while Luxembourg fell from the top 10.
Five countries rose three or more places, compared with 2006: China, Colombia, France, Peru and Venezuela. These were largely driven by increases in incomes and life expectancy and, in the cases of China, Colombia and Venezuela, were also due to improvements in education.
There were extensive changes in country rankings across the board—fifty countries dropped one or more places in rank relative to 2006, and a similar number moved up—although most countries moved no more than two places. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana gained two positions (due to education gains) while Chad, Mauritius and Swaziland fell two places. Seven countries dropped more than two places in the ranking: Belize, Ecuador, Jamaica, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Malta, and Tonga.
The bottom three ranked countries in this year’s HDI, in order, are: Niger, Afghanistan (included for the first time since 1996) and Sierra Leone, respectively. In other words, a child born in Niger can expect to live to just over 50 years, which is 30 years less than a child born in Norway. Furthermore, the differences in per capita income are huge—for every dollar earned per person in Niger, US$85 are earned in Norway.
Klugman underlines that data revisions and updates imply that the HDI is subject to adjustment, and urges readers to not compare this year’s HDI with those published in previous Reports, but to refer directly to the 2009 Report which contains revised data and updated figures since 1980.
Wide Differences
This year’s HDR introduces a new top country category: Very High Human Development. It shows that people living in countries in the higher human development categories can expect to be better educated, to live longer and to earn more: for example, per capita income ranges less than $1,000 in Low HDI countries to over $37,000 in the Very High HDI countries.
Differences in life expectancy and educational attainment are also striking. For example, a child born in a Low HDI country can expect to live just over 50 years—17 less than in Medium HDI countries, and 30 years less than in the Very High HDI countries. One in five adults in Medium HDI countries and one in two in Low HDI countries are still illiterate, while this is very rare elsewhere.
Longer-term trends
Trends in the HDI since 1980 show significant advances in human development, with an average improvement of 15 percent in countries’ HDI scores. The strongest gainers have been China, Iran and Nepal. Yet progress has been much more significant in education and health than on the income front.
“While the closing of the gaps in many health and education indicators is good news, the persistent inequality in the distribution of world incomes should continue to be a source of concern for policy makers and international institutions,” says Klugman, who noted that deeper analysis of these trends is being undertaken as background for the 2010 Report, which marks the 20th anniversary of the HDR.
A wealth of statistics in the HDR beyond the HDI
Beyond the HDI, the Report includes tables on various measures of human development including demographic trends, the economy and inequality, and education and health. It also provides a wealth of internationally comparable data that allows users to detail the key features of international and internal movements of people.
“These tables provide a basic reference for reporters, students, policy makers and researchers interested in knowing more about the role of migration in today’s changing world,” says Klugman.
For the 2009 Human Development Index, please click here or visit http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics.
For the 2009 Human Development Report, please click here.
For the 2009 Human Development Report annexes please click here.
Most of the world’s 195 million international migrants have moved from one developing country to another or between developed countries. Turkey has an emigration rate of 4.2%. The major continent of destination for migrants from Turkey is Europe with 84.0% of emigrants living there.
The United States is host to nearly 40 million international migrants – more than any other country though as a share of total population it is Qatar which has the most migrants – more than 4 in every 5 people are migrants. In Turkey, there are 1,333.9 thousand migrants which represent 1.9% of the total population.
Remittances
Remittances, which are usually sent to immediate family members who have stayed behind, are among the most direct benefits from migration; their benefits spread broadly into local economies. They also serve as foreign exchange earnings for the origin countries of migrants. However, remittances are unequally distributed. Of the total US$370 billion remitted in 2007, more than half went to countries in the medium human development category against less than one per cent to low human development countries. In 2007, US$1,209 million in remittances were sent to Turkey. Average remittances per person were US$16, compared with the average for Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS of US$114. (See Table 6 for more details.)
For the 2009 Human Development Index, please click here.
For the 2009 Human Development Report, please click here.